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In principle, an espresso machine is a simple device; it is designed to heat water to between 90°C and 96°C, and then push it through a puck of ground coffee at a pressure of 8 to 10 bar. The way a particular machine handles heating the water and creating the requisite pressure defines its type.
Spring Levers: This is the oldest system, introduced in the 1940s. A cylinder and piston system is used to pressurize the water. In many home machines of this type, the pressure is applied directly by the operator. The drawback of this is that it is very difficult to smoothly and exactly apply the required 40 to 50 pounds of force on the lever. All commercial lever machines and more sophisticated home machines use an uncoiling spring to power the piston. The operator compresses the spring, which does not require the force to be applied precisely. The reason a single espresso uses about an ounce of liquid is that this was the practical maximum amount of water that could be manually pressurized by this method.
In general, spring lever machines cannot be adjusted to deliver a precise pressure. They start at around 9 bar and, as the spring uncoils, smoothly diminish to around 7 bar by the end of the shot. This does not seem to adversely affect shot quality, and can in some case reduce bitterness.
This system applies pressure very smoothly, without the vibrations introduced by the rotary or reciprocating action of motor pumps. This difference may affect shot quality in two ways. First, it slightly reduces the amount of crema compared to motorized shots, although one very occasionally gets wonderfully creamy shots. Second, the taste of the shot is purer and more transparent, with less bitterness and acridity than otherwise identical shots from motor pump machines. How much of this effect is due to the other properties of lever machines, and how much is due to the lack of vibrations is unknown. But the actual difference in taste is quite apparent.
Rotary Pumps: The great majority of commercial espresso machines use rotary pumps, which can generate enough flow at 9 bar to serve multiple groups simultaneously. They are easily and precisely adjustable for pressure, and the pressure does not vary with the flow rates found in these machines. While they are not vibration free, they are smoother and quieter than the smaller vibratory pumps found on home machines. So, although they are a vast overkill for home use, some espresso enthusiasts get rotary pump espresso machines for their better adjustability and reputedly cleaner taste.
Vibratory Pumps: The home espresso market has exploded because of the vibratory pump, a cheap and small device that can pump just enough water at 9 bar to make a double espresso. Since these work on a reciprocating principle, they introduce far more vibration than rotary pumps. Much of this can be damped out by good overpressure valves and flexible piping, and better home machines have these. But still, they may produce a slightly less transparent taste than the other kinds. On the upside, the vibrations may create slightly more crema.
I am qualifying statements about the taste differences between vibratory and rotary pump espresso. When vibe pumps are properly adjusted, the reputed differences are contested, and in any case subtle. Also they may be influenced not just by differences in vibration, but also the different speeds at which each type reaches full pressure at the start of the shot.
Unlike rotary pumps, vibratory pumps produce a pressure that is strongly inverse to the rate of flow. If there are no controls, one must make a 2 ounce in 20 to 25 seconds espresso to get the pressure inside the 8 to 10 bar range. Smaller, slower pouring shots will have far higher pressures; larger, faster pouring shots will have far lower pressures. Better home machines have overpressure valves to limit the maximum pressure to about 10 bar, so that single and ristretto (reduced) espressos can be made without exceeding the normal extraction pressure range. Long shots, like Swiss café crema, will brew at 4 to 6 bar, no matter how well the vibe pump is controlled.
Boiler/Heat Shedding Group: This is the oldest system. Water is taken directly from the steam boiler at a temperature of roughly 120°C (250°F). The water's temperature drops to brew range in the group prior to its reaching the coffee. Most spring lever machines work in this way. Obviously, this is not a very precise way to regulate temperature. If the group is too cool, the final brew temperature will be too low; if it overheats, the final brew temperature will be too high. On commercial lever machines, shots have to be made at just the right pace to keep the group at the correct temperature; on many home lever machines, the machine has to be turned off after four or five shots and left to cool.
Heat Exchanger: Most commercial and larger home machines use this system. The heat exchanger is basically a pipe inside the boiler. As the water is pumped to the group, it goes through the pipe and heats up to brew temperature range. The average temperature can be adjusted by lowering or raising the steam boiler's temperature and pressure. Since the water arriving at the group is designed to be at the correct temperature, the group itself also has to be heated to the correct temperature so as not to change that of the brew water. This is done either by circulating hot water through the group or by bolting the group directly to the boiler. Again, this is not a very precise system, and it is difficult to adjust the temperature to a precise level. However, good engineering can make heat exchanger systems very stable, so that they hold the same temperature within 1°C to 2°C. This is mainly done by using very massive groups and heat exchangers. Once these are at the correct temperature, changes in the relatively small amounts of water going through them do not affect their thermal stability. However, they still depend on shots being made a steady pace. After a long idle time, the water in the heat exchanger will overheat, and the group may also drift to the wrong temperature. One has to go through a regime of flushing water through the group to get the system to the right starting temperature for making shots. The exact details of this regime vary from machine to machine, however the article How I Stopped Worrying and Learned to Love HXs offers general advice that can be adapted to most heat exchangers.
Heat exchanger systems have an important advantage compared to smaller single boiler home machines. They can steam milk and make shots at the same time, whereas single boiler machines cannot.
Single Boiler: Smaller home machines have a single boiler without a heat exchanger. When making espresso, one thermostat is used to heat the water to 90°C to 96°C; when steaming, another thermostat is used to heat the water to 125°C. There can be up to a one-minute wait for the boiler to switch from one temperature to the other. The major quality factor in these machines is the size of the boiler. The poorest machines have a thermoblock that heats less than an ounce of water on the fly. The best machines have boilers up to 25 fluid ounces. Although bigger is always better in terms of thermal stability, above about 12 to 16 ounces of boiler size, the added stability becomes somewhat academic compared to other factors.
In most home machines, the thermostat is a simple bi-metallic disc mounted to the outside surface of the boiler. These have a deadband (the range between turning on and off) of around 10°C. In order to get consistent temperatures shot-to-shot, you begin brewing espresso at the same point in the range, typically the moment it reaches maximum temperature. Varying the shot temperature is very difficult, and requires timing out the thermostat cycle precisely—a technique called temperature surfing.
Better home machines use vapor pressure or electronic thermostats which measure the water directly and have narrow deadbands. Although these are adjustable in theory, in practice, they are not very accessible.
Many home espresso enthusiasts take one of the better single boiler home machines and use industrial temperature controllers (called PID controllers) to precisely regulate the temperature. When this is done, these machines deliver very repeatable and adjustable shot temperatures.
Double Boiler: Single boiler machines cannot steam and pull shots at the same time. However, with the right controls, they deliver very precise temperature control. Commercial manufacturers took note of this and are producing double boiler machines. These have one boiler used for brewing and another for steaming, with each boiler set to the correct temperature for its function. In theory, such machines can deliver completely stable temperatures. In practice, groups are not regulated and shot temperatures can vary as widely as on the better heat exchanger models. Nevertheless, since these espresso machines almost always have accessible electronic controls, they are much easier to set to the desired temperature than any other kind of machine. Also, this is an active area of innovation, and double boiler espresso machines are becoming more precise with each new model iteration. The most advanced current models claim to keep temperatures within 0.5°C of the setting under all operating conditions.
There are several models of double boiler machine now available for the high end home market.
It depends. Most home espresso enthusiasts buy small commercial machines, or do their own upgrades on better home models, not because they drink more coffee, but because they are looking for consistency. Consistency in pressure and temperature has three aspects:
You will pay more for beautifully designed cases, for higher quality, long life components, and for good workmanship and maintainability. Inexpensive home machines have almost become disposable, and such features are likely a waste of money. More expensive machines are like major appliances—their lifetime is measured in decades, and they are designed to be repaired and serviced. Since it is more convenient to do routine maintenance and service yourself, a well designed machine with high quality components greatly increases the joy of ownership. Since such machines are long term fixtures in the home, the quality and type of case design should be chosen with their location in mind. It is rather odd to walk into a beautiful marble tiled kitchen and see its granite counters populated by cheap plastic gadgets; on the other hand, a machine destined for placement behind a counter or in a working kitchen can be simple and utilitarian in design.
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